搜狗做题网有关欧洲中世纪大学的英文论文
来源：学生作业帮 编辑：搜狗做题网作业帮 分类：英语作业 时间：2024/04/29 12:43:28
有关欧洲中世纪大学的英文论文
要英文的,最好包括后期中世纪大学的变迁与文艺复兴和宗教改革的关系.
要英文的,最好包括后期中世纪大学的变迁与文艺复兴和宗教改革的关系.
欧洲中世纪大学 Medieval European Universities
Medieval university is such an institution of higher learning which was established during Gothic period and is a corporation.
The first European medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology. These universities evolved from much older schools and monasteries, and it is difficult to define the date at which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide.
"The word universitas originally applied only to the scholastic guild (or guilds)—that is, the corporation of students and masters—within the studium, and it was always modified, as universitas magistrorum, or universitas scholarium, or universitas magistrorum et scholarium. In the course of time, however, probably toward the latter part of the 14th century, the term began to be used by itself, with the exclusive meaning of a self-regulating community of teachers and scholars whose corporate existence had been recognized and sanctioned by civil or ecclesiastical authority."
History
Origins
Though some higher education institutions like the Nalanda University or University of Constantinople claim to be the oldest universities, the first universities in the modern sense (academic degree-granting higher education institutions) in western religious world were the University of Al-Karaouine (established in 859)[2] and Al-Azhar University (established in 975).[3] A different case is the University of Constantinople, which was founded in the 9th century as a secular institute of higher learning, to support the state administration. In China and eastern world, there were many higher institutes of learnings in mediaval era, the tradition of which can trace back to ancient times, like the school Shang Hsiang.
The first degree-granting university in medieval Europe was the University of Bologna (established in 1088). The first universities in Europe were influenced in many ways by the Madrasahs in Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily at the time, and in the Middle East during the Crusades.[4] Medieval European universities were also influenced by a Gothic ethos: to build communities like communes (cities) themselves or guilds. With the increasing professionalisation of society during the 12th and 13th centuries, a similar demand grew for professional clergy. Before the 12th century, the intellectual life of Europe had been relegated to monasteries, which were mostly concerned with the study of the liturgy and prayer; very few monasteries could boast true intellectuals. Following the Gregorian Reform's emphasis on canon law and the study of the sacraments, bishops formed cathedral schools to train the clergy in Canon law, but also in the more secular aspects of church administration, including logic and disputation for use in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to more effectively control finances. Learning became essential to advancing in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and teachers also gained prestige. However, demand quickly outstripped the capacity of cathedral schools, each of which was essentially run by one teacher. In addition, tensions rose between the students of cathedral schools and burghers in smaller towns. So, cathedral schools migrated to large cities, like Paris and Bologna.
The first universities in Europe (University of Bologna (1088), University of Paris (1160), University of Oxford (1167), University of Cambridge (1209), University of Palencia (1212), University of Salamanca (1218), University of Montpellier (1220), University of Padua (1222), University of Toulouse (1229) and University of Orleans (1235)) began as private enterprise of teachers and their pupils. Soon they realized they need protection against local city authorities. They petioned secular power for privileges and this became a model. Emperor Frederick I in Authentica Habita (1158) gave the first privileges to students in Bologna. Another step was when Pope Alexander III in 1179 "forbidding masters of the church schools to take fees for granting the license to teach (licentia docendi), and obliging them to give license to properly qualified teachers".
Establishment
A predecessor of the modern university was in Paris, especially under the guidance of Peter Abelard, who wrote Sic et Non ("Yes and No"), which collected texts for university study. Dissatisfied with tensions between burghers and students and the censorship of leading intellectuals by the Church, Abelard and others formed the Universitas, modelled on the mediaeval guild, self-regulating, permanent institution of higher education. The University of Paris became one of the first clearly established universities, when Pope Gregory IX issued the bull Parens Scientiarium
This was revolutionary step: studium generale (university) and universitas (corporation of students or teachers) existed even before, but now it got autonomy. "[T]he papal bull of 1233, which stipulated that anyone admitted to be a teacher in Toulouse had the right to teach everywhere without further examinations (ius ubique docendi), in time, transformed this privilege into the single most important defining characteristic of the university and made it the symbol of its institutional autonomy . . . By the year 1292, even the two oldest universities, Bologna and Paris, felt the need to seek similar bulls from Pope Nicholas IV."[5]
By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degreed masters (abbots, archbishops, cardinals), and over one-third of the second-highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the High Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas and Robert Grosseteste, were products of the mediaeval university.
The development of the mediaeval university coincided with the widespread reintroduction of Aristotle from Byzantine and Arab scholars and the decline in popularity of Platonism and Neoplatonism in favour of Aristotelian thought.
Age of medieval universities was ended by Humanism and its academies.
Characteristics
Initially medieval universities did not have a campus. Classes were taught wherever space was available, such as churches and homes. A university was not a physical space but a collection of individuals banded together as a universitas. Soon, however, some universities (such as Cambridge) began to buy or rent rooms specifically for the purposes of teaching.
Universities were generally structured along three types, depending on who paid the teachers. The first type was in Bologna, where students hired and paid for the teachers. The second type was in Paris, where teachers were paid by the church. Oxford and Cambridge were predominantly supported by the crown and the state, a fact which helped them survive the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 and the subsequent removal of all the principal Catholic institutions in England. These structural differences created other characteristics. At the Bologna university the students ran everything -- a fact that often put teachers under great pressure and disadvantage. In Paris, teachers ran the school; thus Paris became the premiere spot for teachers from all over Europe. Also, in Paris the main subject matter was theology, so control of the qualifications awarded was in the hands of an external authority - the Chancellor of the diocese. In Bologna, where students chose more secular studies, the main subject was law.
University studies took six years for a Bachelor's degree and up to twelve additional years for a master's degree and doctorate. The first six years were organized by the faculty of arts, where the seven liberal arts were taught: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The primary emphasis was on logic.
Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been conferred, the student could leave the university or pursue further studies, in one of the three other faculties – law, medicine, or theology – in which to pursue the master's degree and doctorate degree. Theology was the most prestigious area of study, and the most difficult.
Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example a course might be on a book by Aristotle, or a book from the Bible. Courses were not elective: the course offerings were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to which teacher to use.
Students entered the University at fourteen to fifteen years of age. Classes usually started at 05:00 or 06:00. Students were afforded the legal protection of the clergy. In this way no one was allowed to physically harm them; they could only be tried for crimes in a church court, and were thus immune from any corporal punishment. This gave students free rein in urban environments to break secular laws with impunity, a fact which produced many abuses: theft, rape and murder were not uncommon among students who did not face serious consequences. This led to uneasy tensions with secular authorities. Students would sometimes "strike" by leaving a city and not returning for years. This happened at the University of Paris strike of 1229 after a riot (started by the students) left a number of students dead; the University went on strike and they did not return for two years. As the students had the legal status of clerics which, according to the Canon Law, could not be held by women, women were not admitted into universities.
A popular textbook for university study was called the Sentences (Quattuor libri sententiarum) of Peter Lombard; theology students and masters were required to write extensive commentaries on this text as part of their curriculum. Much of mediaeval thought in philosophy and theology can be found in scholastic textual commentary because scholasticism was such a popular method of teaching.
Most universities of international excellence in Europe were registered by the Holy Roman Empire as a Studium Generale. Members of these institutions were encouraged to disseminate their knowledge across Europe, often giving lecture courses at a different Studium Generale.
------------------------
指11～17世纪欧洲各国兴起的高等学府,为近代高等教育之滥觞.大学(University)一词源于拉丁文Uni-versitas,意为“总和”、“联合”,即学生组织之间或学生组织与教师组织之间的联合团体.
中世纪初期,欧洲教育为教会所垄断.为了培养僧职人员,教会在地方兴办僧院学校,在教区设立主教学校.11世纪西欧城市兴起以后,由于手工业和商业的发展以及城市反对领主的斗争,迫切需要能读会写、具有各方面知识的人才.原有的僧院学校远不能满足社会发展的需要.于是从11世纪起,一些城市的手工业行会和商人公会,以及市政当局,打破教会几百年来对教育的垄断,自发地创办了世俗学校.学校根据城市生产、交换和社会生活的需要,开设文法和计算方面的课程,培养各方面的人才.城市学校的普遍兴起,促进了城市文化教育水平的提高,引起人们对古典艺术、古典哲学和研究罗马法的兴趣.这种新型学校不依靠教会,而是靠学生交纳学费维持学校的经费开支.校长和教师统由行会和市政当局共同聘任.这种新型学校在中世纪得到普遍的发展和扩大.
中世纪,在西欧某些城市学校和主教学校的基础上开始出现大学.最早的大学产生于意大利.具有代表性且影响较大的是萨莱诺大学、博洛尼亚大学和巴黎大学.萨莱诺大学设在意大利的萨莱诺,先是有一所医学校,11世纪初成为医学研究中心.当时,犹太人阿非利加诺来到萨莱诺,编译希腊医学家希波克拉底和阿拉伯的医学著作,对医学理论和医疗事业有很大推动.萨莱诺大学成为欧洲最早的医科大学,1231年得到政府承认.11世纪末出现的博洛尼亚法律学校以研究法学著称,1158年得到神圣罗马帝国皇帝腓特烈一世（红胡子）颁布敕令的保护,学生团体取得了一定的自由权利和特权地位,遂发展成为博洛尼亚大学.博洛尼亚大学的学生按照籍贯组成同乡会,到13世纪阿尔卑斯山南北两个同乡会联合起来,形成“法科大学”.这是一种学生团体的联合,不包括教师按学科成立的组织“学科会”.此后,大学便经常与市政当局和其他市民接触,成为独立的市民团体.不久教师组织便与学生组织联合,统由学生中选出的校长管理,从而确立了师生合一的大学的形式.博洛尼亚大学设有文学院和医学院,在14世纪以前还设有神学院,最初统由法科大学校长管辖.到14世纪初,博洛尼亚大学取得独立的审判权,成为名副其实的自治团体.法国的巴黎大学始建于12世纪末,由原巴黎圣母院大教堂学校发展而来,正式形成于13世纪初.1209年在巴黎出现了教师会组织.1215年,教师会与学生会一起得到教皇亚历山大三世的正式承认.1231年,罗马教皇以敕令肯定该大学的自决权.巴黎大学由主教的代理人主持,教授由教会委任,并发给薪俸.学校的管理人员不是由全体学生选举,而是由取得博士和硕士学位的人选举产生.全校分为 4个系,各系由公选的系主任主持.文艺系为普通教育阶段,具有预科教育的性质.学生在这里主要学习“自由七艺”（文法、修辞、伦理、算术、几何、天文和音乐）,修完前 3科,可得文学士学位,全部修完后 4科,可得文学硕士学位.然后取得投考其他 3个高级专门系（神学、医学、教会法）的资格.修完专门系的课程,才能取得博士学位.入学年龄和修学年限均无明确规定.一般修完初级和高级两个阶段,大约需要12～13年.欧洲中世纪大学多是自治团体.它既不隶属于教会,又不受制于地方,保持相对独立性,可以自由研究学术.由教授和学生共同推选校长进行管理.博洛尼亚大学类型在南欧比较普及,而巴黎大学类型则在北欧占优势.
继意大利和法国之后,英国创办了牛津大学(1168)和剑桥大学(1209)(见彩图).14世纪,德国建立了海德堡大学,捷克建立了布拉格大学,波兰创办了克拉科夫大学.到1500年,全欧已有80所大学,1600年大学发展到 108所.中世纪欧洲大学的出现和发展为欧洲文艺复兴、宗教改革运动作了准备,促进了各国文化和学术的发展,有利于城市的繁荣和工商业的进步,加速了国际间的文化和学术的交流,并对当时和后来的教育事业产生了重大影响.
Medieval university is such an institution of higher learning which was established during Gothic period and is a corporation.
The first European medieval institutions generally considered to be universities were established in Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts, law, medicine, and theology. These universities evolved from much older schools and monasteries, and it is difficult to define the date at which they became true universities, although the lists of studia generalia for higher education in Europe held by the Vatican are a useful guide.
"The word universitas originally applied only to the scholastic guild (or guilds)—that is, the corporation of students and masters—within the studium, and it was always modified, as universitas magistrorum, or universitas scholarium, or universitas magistrorum et scholarium. In the course of time, however, probably toward the latter part of the 14th century, the term began to be used by itself, with the exclusive meaning of a self-regulating community of teachers and scholars whose corporate existence had been recognized and sanctioned by civil or ecclesiastical authority."
History
Origins
Though some higher education institutions like the Nalanda University or University of Constantinople claim to be the oldest universities, the first universities in the modern sense (academic degree-granting higher education institutions) in western religious world were the University of Al-Karaouine (established in 859)[2] and Al-Azhar University (established in 975).[3] A different case is the University of Constantinople, which was founded in the 9th century as a secular institute of higher learning, to support the state administration. In China and eastern world, there were many higher institutes of learnings in mediaval era, the tradition of which can trace back to ancient times, like the school Shang Hsiang.
The first degree-granting university in medieval Europe was the University of Bologna (established in 1088). The first universities in Europe were influenced in many ways by the Madrasahs in Islamic Spain and the Emirate of Sicily at the time, and in the Middle East during the Crusades.[4] Medieval European universities were also influenced by a Gothic ethos: to build communities like communes (cities) themselves or guilds. With the increasing professionalisation of society during the 12th and 13th centuries, a similar demand grew for professional clergy. Before the 12th century, the intellectual life of Europe had been relegated to monasteries, which were mostly concerned with the study of the liturgy and prayer; very few monasteries could boast true intellectuals. Following the Gregorian Reform's emphasis on canon law and the study of the sacraments, bishops formed cathedral schools to train the clergy in Canon law, but also in the more secular aspects of church administration, including logic and disputation for use in preaching and theological discussion, and accounting to more effectively control finances. Learning became essential to advancing in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and teachers also gained prestige. However, demand quickly outstripped the capacity of cathedral schools, each of which was essentially run by one teacher. In addition, tensions rose between the students of cathedral schools and burghers in smaller towns. So, cathedral schools migrated to large cities, like Paris and Bologna.
The first universities in Europe (University of Bologna (1088), University of Paris (1160), University of Oxford (1167), University of Cambridge (1209), University of Palencia (1212), University of Salamanca (1218), University of Montpellier (1220), University of Padua (1222), University of Toulouse (1229) and University of Orleans (1235)) began as private enterprise of teachers and their pupils. Soon they realized they need protection against local city authorities. They petioned secular power for privileges and this became a model. Emperor Frederick I in Authentica Habita (1158) gave the first privileges to students in Bologna. Another step was when Pope Alexander III in 1179 "forbidding masters of the church schools to take fees for granting the license to teach (licentia docendi), and obliging them to give license to properly qualified teachers".
Establishment
A predecessor of the modern university was in Paris, especially under the guidance of Peter Abelard, who wrote Sic et Non ("Yes and No"), which collected texts for university study. Dissatisfied with tensions between burghers and students and the censorship of leading intellectuals by the Church, Abelard and others formed the Universitas, modelled on the mediaeval guild, self-regulating, permanent institution of higher education. The University of Paris became one of the first clearly established universities, when Pope Gregory IX issued the bull Parens Scientiarium
This was revolutionary step: studium generale (university) and universitas (corporation of students or teachers) existed even before, but now it got autonomy. "[T]he papal bull of 1233, which stipulated that anyone admitted to be a teacher in Toulouse had the right to teach everywhere without further examinations (ius ubique docendi), in time, transformed this privilege into the single most important defining characteristic of the university and made it the symbol of its institutional autonomy . . . By the year 1292, even the two oldest universities, Bologna and Paris, felt the need to seek similar bulls from Pope Nicholas IV."[5]
By the 13th century, almost half of the highest offices in the Church were occupied by degreed masters (abbots, archbishops, cardinals), and over one-third of the second-highest offices were occupied by masters. In addition, some of the greatest theologians of the High Middle Ages, Thomas Aquinas and Robert Grosseteste, were products of the mediaeval university.
The development of the mediaeval university coincided with the widespread reintroduction of Aristotle from Byzantine and Arab scholars and the decline in popularity of Platonism and Neoplatonism in favour of Aristotelian thought.
Age of medieval universities was ended by Humanism and its academies.
Characteristics
Initially medieval universities did not have a campus. Classes were taught wherever space was available, such as churches and homes. A university was not a physical space but a collection of individuals banded together as a universitas. Soon, however, some universities (such as Cambridge) began to buy or rent rooms specifically for the purposes of teaching.
Universities were generally structured along three types, depending on who paid the teachers. The first type was in Bologna, where students hired and paid for the teachers. The second type was in Paris, where teachers were paid by the church. Oxford and Cambridge were predominantly supported by the crown and the state, a fact which helped them survive the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538 and the subsequent removal of all the principal Catholic institutions in England. These structural differences created other characteristics. At the Bologna university the students ran everything -- a fact that often put teachers under great pressure and disadvantage. In Paris, teachers ran the school; thus Paris became the premiere spot for teachers from all over Europe. Also, in Paris the main subject matter was theology, so control of the qualifications awarded was in the hands of an external authority - the Chancellor of the diocese. In Bologna, where students chose more secular studies, the main subject was law.
University studies took six years for a Bachelor's degree and up to twelve additional years for a master's degree and doctorate. The first six years were organized by the faculty of arts, where the seven liberal arts were taught: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music theory, grammar, logic, and rhetoric. The primary emphasis was on logic.
Once a Bachelor of Arts degree had been conferred, the student could leave the university or pursue further studies, in one of the three other faculties – law, medicine, or theology – in which to pursue the master's degree and doctorate degree. Theology was the most prestigious area of study, and the most difficult.
Courses were offered according to books, not by subject or theme. For example a course might be on a book by Aristotle, or a book from the Bible. Courses were not elective: the course offerings were set, and everyone had to take the same courses. There were, however, occasional choices as to which teacher to use.
Students entered the University at fourteen to fifteen years of age. Classes usually started at 05:00 or 06:00. Students were afforded the legal protection of the clergy. In this way no one was allowed to physically harm them; they could only be tried for crimes in a church court, and were thus immune from any corporal punishment. This gave students free rein in urban environments to break secular laws with impunity, a fact which produced many abuses: theft, rape and murder were not uncommon among students who did not face serious consequences. This led to uneasy tensions with secular authorities. Students would sometimes "strike" by leaving a city and not returning for years. This happened at the University of Paris strike of 1229 after a riot (started by the students) left a number of students dead; the University went on strike and they did not return for two years. As the students had the legal status of clerics which, according to the Canon Law, could not be held by women, women were not admitted into universities.
A popular textbook for university study was called the Sentences (Quattuor libri sententiarum) of Peter Lombard; theology students and masters were required to write extensive commentaries on this text as part of their curriculum. Much of mediaeval thought in philosophy and theology can be found in scholastic textual commentary because scholasticism was such a popular method of teaching.
Most universities of international excellence in Europe were registered by the Holy Roman Empire as a Studium Generale. Members of these institutions were encouraged to disseminate their knowledge across Europe, often giving lecture courses at a different Studium Generale.
------------------------
指11～17世纪欧洲各国兴起的高等学府,为近代高等教育之滥觞.大学(University)一词源于拉丁文Uni-versitas,意为“总和”、“联合”,即学生组织之间或学生组织与教师组织之间的联合团体.
中世纪初期,欧洲教育为教会所垄断.为了培养僧职人员,教会在地方兴办僧院学校,在教区设立主教学校.11世纪西欧城市兴起以后,由于手工业和商业的发展以及城市反对领主的斗争,迫切需要能读会写、具有各方面知识的人才.原有的僧院学校远不能满足社会发展的需要.于是从11世纪起,一些城市的手工业行会和商人公会,以及市政当局,打破教会几百年来对教育的垄断,自发地创办了世俗学校.学校根据城市生产、交换和社会生活的需要,开设文法和计算方面的课程,培养各方面的人才.城市学校的普遍兴起,促进了城市文化教育水平的提高,引起人们对古典艺术、古典哲学和研究罗马法的兴趣.这种新型学校不依靠教会,而是靠学生交纳学费维持学校的经费开支.校长和教师统由行会和市政当局共同聘任.这种新型学校在中世纪得到普遍的发展和扩大.
中世纪,在西欧某些城市学校和主教学校的基础上开始出现大学.最早的大学产生于意大利.具有代表性且影响较大的是萨莱诺大学、博洛尼亚大学和巴黎大学.萨莱诺大学设在意大利的萨莱诺,先是有一所医学校,11世纪初成为医学研究中心.当时,犹太人阿非利加诺来到萨莱诺,编译希腊医学家希波克拉底和阿拉伯的医学著作,对医学理论和医疗事业有很大推动.萨莱诺大学成为欧洲最早的医科大学,1231年得到政府承认.11世纪末出现的博洛尼亚法律学校以研究法学著称,1158年得到神圣罗马帝国皇帝腓特烈一世（红胡子）颁布敕令的保护,学生团体取得了一定的自由权利和特权地位,遂发展成为博洛尼亚大学.博洛尼亚大学的学生按照籍贯组成同乡会,到13世纪阿尔卑斯山南北两个同乡会联合起来,形成“法科大学”.这是一种学生团体的联合,不包括教师按学科成立的组织“学科会”.此后,大学便经常与市政当局和其他市民接触,成为独立的市民团体.不久教师组织便与学生组织联合,统由学生中选出的校长管理,从而确立了师生合一的大学的形式.博洛尼亚大学设有文学院和医学院,在14世纪以前还设有神学院,最初统由法科大学校长管辖.到14世纪初,博洛尼亚大学取得独立的审判权,成为名副其实的自治团体.法国的巴黎大学始建于12世纪末,由原巴黎圣母院大教堂学校发展而来,正式形成于13世纪初.1209年在巴黎出现了教师会组织.1215年,教师会与学生会一起得到教皇亚历山大三世的正式承认.1231年,罗马教皇以敕令肯定该大学的自决权.巴黎大学由主教的代理人主持,教授由教会委任,并发给薪俸.学校的管理人员不是由全体学生选举,而是由取得博士和硕士学位的人选举产生.全校分为 4个系,各系由公选的系主任主持.文艺系为普通教育阶段,具有预科教育的性质.学生在这里主要学习“自由七艺”（文法、修辞、伦理、算术、几何、天文和音乐）,修完前 3科,可得文学士学位,全部修完后 4科,可得文学硕士学位.然后取得投考其他 3个高级专门系（神学、医学、教会法）的资格.修完专门系的课程,才能取得博士学位.入学年龄和修学年限均无明确规定.一般修完初级和高级两个阶段,大约需要12～13年.欧洲中世纪大学多是自治团体.它既不隶属于教会,又不受制于地方,保持相对独立性,可以自由研究学术.由教授和学生共同推选校长进行管理.博洛尼亚大学类型在南欧比较普及,而巴黎大学类型则在北欧占优势.
继意大利和法国之后,英国创办了牛津大学(1168)和剑桥大学(1209)(见彩图).14世纪,德国建立了海德堡大学,捷克建立了布拉格大学,波兰创办了克拉科夫大学.到1500年,全欧已有80所大学,1600年大学发展到 108所.中世纪欧洲大学的出现和发展为欧洲文艺复兴、宗教改革运动作了准备,促进了各国文化和学术的发展,有利于城市的繁荣和工商业的进步,加速了国际间的文化和学术的交流,并对当时和后来的教育事业产生了重大影响.